Abstract: The development of efficient carbon capture technologies is a key pathway to achieve the “dual carbon” goals. Chemical absorption, characterized by high mass transfer efficiency, rapid reaction kinetics, and mature process engineering, has established itself as a prominent technical solution for post-combustion carbon capture. In recent years, significant advancements have been attained in absorbent development, bubble behavior modulation, mass transfer mechanism elucidation, and reactor configuration design. Nevertheless, substantial challenges persist in energy consumption control, interfacial stability maintenance, and process intensification pathways. This review critically synthesizes the state-of-the-art progress in typical absorbent systems and their synergistic mechanisms, bubble dispersion characteristics, multiphase interfacial mass transfer behaviors, reactor optimization methodologies, and the impacts of key operating parameters on system performance. The article also evaluates the synergistic regulation potential of external physical fields, including electric and magnetic fields. Future research directions are proposed from the perspectives of multiscale modeling, phase dispersion intensification, and functional material design, with the aim of providing theoretical foundations and technical references for the construction of high-efficiency, low-energy-consumption, and environmentally benign carbon capture systems.